Theory of Cognitive Development and Children

Discuss the concept of ‘constructivism’ (from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development). Use a mix of theory and research to back up your ideas about whether or not the child constructs his/her own development. The understanding of how children comprehend the world around them has been a highly researched part of cognitive development in Psychology. Jean Piaget was one of the first researchers to develop a theory suggesting that children understand the world around them by actively seeking information from their environment, and continuously expanding their knowledge by organizing, adapting and assimilating this information Berlin, (1992).Piaget’s theory known as constructivism theory, has undergone a high level of scrutiny, centring on the understanding of children’s cognitive abilities, and neglecting the intelligence of assistance. Through analysing current research this paper aims to explore Piaget’s constructivism theory. Children’ s development has been a topic of interest since the 1920’s, following the creation of an intelligence test developed by Piaget and his colleagues where Piaget discovered that younger children made systematic mistakes from those of older age, consequently proposing that children change qualitatively with age, Bremner et al. (2012). Studying his own children Piaget formed the constructivism theory arguing that children built their knowledge through organization (children organize their information in schemas, assimilation (using pre-existing information) and adaptation and accommodation (adapting to the condition of the environment), by searching for information from their environment to expand their understanding of the world, Beilin, H. (1992). Piaget proposed children take an active role in their cognitive development, and independently construct the world around them.He proposed that children face different problems as they move through the stages, and it is the solving of these problems that teach them and assist them in learning and developing their thinking. The knowledge they receive from solving these actions are not imitated or innate, instead are ‘actively constructed’ by the child. In this sense, Piaget suggests that thought is obtained from action, when actions are internalised, ones thinking increases. The child is influenced by their previous ideas and new experiences, and based on this they construct new ideas.Piaget suggested that cognitive structuring, actions representing specific ‘acts’ of intelligence, is developed and linked to stages of child development. Piaget proposed children undergo four developmental stages where cognitive structuring occurs. These stages are sensorimotor stage (from birth to two years of age), preoperational stage (from three to seven years of age), concrete operations stage (from eight to eleven years of age), and formal operational stage (from twelve years of age until adulthood) Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969).In the first stage, sensorimotor which Piaget divided into six sub-stages, intelligence is demonstrated through basic motor skills such as sucking to experimenting with external objects by using schemas in order to reach their goal. ). Piaget suggested that until the age of seven months (during their third sub-stage of sensory motor stage), infants do not understand that the world consists of permanent objects. He argues that if at this stage you hide an object in front of the infant they show disappointment or simply stop looking for the object as if the object disappeared.Not until infant reaches eight months (the fourth sub-stage of sensory motor stage), does the child start to look for hidden objects, which shows that at this stage infants start to understand object permanence, Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). One of Piaget’s studies that received a great deal of attention is the A-not-B error study, which he explains that if an object is hidden in front of an infant (location A); at around eight months of age they would reach toward the hidden object.However if the object is moved to a different location (location B) infants until twelve months of age would still reach for the first location. The failure to reach the correct location Piaget explains as egocentrism clamming that at this stage children fail to see the situation in a different point of view thinking that because the object was placed in the first location that that object would permanently be there, Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). Testing Piaget’s A-not-B theory Kaufman and Needham (1999) tested 40 six and a half month infants.Using habituation technique they concluded that infants looked longer when the objects were moved. Contrary to Piaget’s findings, they suggested that infant special orientation development happens at much earlier age, arguing that Piaget underestimated infant ability. The second and third stage Piaget proposed ar e the preoperational and concrete stage at this stage children understand object permanence (that objects continue to exist even though they cannot ee them) , spatial layouts and also the use of language for problem solving starts during the preoperational stage through constructing existing information and eventually expanding this information. However until the age of seven children still see the world from their egocentric view (i. e. refusing to see the world from a different point of view). At the concrete stage children are able to solve visual problems such as lining in order dolls from the tallest to the shortest, however they are not able to solve mental problems, Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. 1969). The fourth and last stage that Piaget proposed is the formal stage. At this stage Piaget argues that children can think abstractly, consider possibilities and formulate hypothesis. Piaget’s formal operational stage has been criticised by researchers such as Kuhn et al. ,(198 2) who discovered that although constructing knowledge seems to be sufficient for the sensory-motor and preoperational stage, it does not seem to be the same case with the concrete and formal operational stage since not all adults show formal operational thought.There have been numerous studies conducted which provide support for constructivism theory. Guthrie et al (2004) compared different instructional methods for student’s reading skills, these methods included a strategies instruction approach, and an approach combining strategies instruction and constructivist motivation techniques, such as incorporating student choices, collaboration, and hands-on activities.The constructivist approach, called CORI (Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction) produced a high student reading comprehension, motivation, and cognitive strategies (Guthrie et al, 2004). Similarly Jong Suk Kim (Kim, 2005) found that when students were taught using constructivist-teaching methods, they achieved high er levels in academia compared to using traditional teaching methods. Students also voiced preferring constructivist methods over traditional ones.However, one of the biggest criticisms of Piaget’s theory has been the ignorance of social and cultural influences on child development. Contrary to Piaget, who believed that allowing children to experiment and express their own ideas enabled their constructive processes to develop knowledge, Vygotsky’s (1962) sociocultural theory proposed that learning and development are derived collaboratively from socialisation and education. He argued that simple knowledge such as perception and attention are mental abilities are innate, and although children actively developed their thought rocesses through the environment, they could also, with assistance from others, reach a higher level/stage of cognitive development than the stage they are at when they perform alone. Vygotsky named this ‘the zone of proximal developmentâ€⠄¢, â€Å"†¦the distance between the actual development of a child as determined by the independent problem solving, and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more peers Vygotsky (1978)† Vygotsky’s (1978, p. 56).Therefore, although his theory is similar to Piaget in that he believes cognitive development is restricted to a limited range at a certain age, he believes that with the aid of social interaction, for instance the help of a mentor, an individual/child can understand concepts and schemas that they would be unable to comprehend alone. In this sense it questions the extent to which children construct their own environment and developments as children’s knowledge may develop at a much faster rate through interaction and guidance of more experienced peers , such as older siblings, parent or teachers, Gauvain and Cole (1997).Evidence supporting Vygotksy can be seen in a stud y by Gauvain et al. , (1997). He found that if you test a group of nine year old pupils with a number of problem solving skills (at Piaget’s concrete operational stage) and test a group of twelve year old pupils (at Piaget’s formal operational stage), and not assist them, they would show the same level of intelligence, concluding that knowledge is not simply constructed through experience but also through techniques taught by others.Similarly, Mayer (2004) proposed that â€Å"a recent replication is research showing that students learn to become better at solving mathematics problems when they study worked-out examples rather than when they solely engage in hands-on problem, Mayer (2004, p. 18) Conclusion Piaget’s four-stage knowledge development theory is highly researched criteria within developmental Psychology. The use of constructing previously learnt information into new information through experience seems to be more effective at an early age. His theory seems to underestimate the children’s ability and knowledge; however it overestimates adolescence ability.It also is unarguable that constructivism theory fails to acknowledge the social effects that have been shown to play a crucial part in knowledge development. However it is not to say that Piaget’s constructivism theory should be discarded altogether, since Piaget was the pioneer in introducing clinical methods to explore children’s thoughts. This remains the fundamental theory used in child development research. Moreover, as mentioned above, Piaget’s constructivism theory is highly used in schools, guiding teachers in how to enable children to explore their own environment through expression and experimentation.In conclusion, knowledge development could be acquired through both construction of ones own experiences, and the help of more experienced peers. References 1. Beilin, H. (1992). Piaget’s enduring contribution to developmental psycholo gy. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191-204. 2. Bremner A. et al. , (1986). Developmental Psychology. Developmental Psychology. 3. Bodner, Gg. M. (1986). Constructivism a theory of knowledge. Journal of Chemical Education, 63, 873-878. 4. Gauvain M. and Cole. M. (1997). Readings on the development of children. W. H.Freeman and Company. New York. 5. Guthrie et al. , (2004) Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept oriented reading instructions. Journal of educational psychology, 96 (3), 403-423. 6. Kaufman, J. and Needham, A. (1999) Objective spatial coding in 6. 5-month-old infants in a visual dishabituation task. Developmental science, 2(4), 432-441. 7. Kuhn et al. , (1982), Systematic and metasystematic reasoning:A case for levels of reasoning beyond Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Developmental psychology, 53, 1058-1069. 8. Kim J. S. (2005).The effect of constructivist teaching approach on student’s academic achievements, self- concept and l earning strategies. Asia pacific and education review, 6 (1) 7-19. 9. Mayer (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? American Psychologist, 59 (1) 14-19. 10. Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the Child. NY: Basic Books. 11. Vygotsky L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Massachusetts: The M. I. T. Press. 12. Vygotsky L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Mind and society, Cambridge: Harvard university press.

Advantages of PHP Language in Web Design

Now a day, when we talk about web designing, the first language which comes into our mind is PHP. It is one on the hottest scripting language into today's technology world. Well, the reason behind its popularity is no license cost. PHP is an open source, which you can download free of cost and customize it according your project requirements. It comes with PHPMyAdmin, which is supported by database languages like MY SQL2.0, SQL, etc to create database tables. By using PHP, you can build fast, secure and dynamic web portals, as it is the most compatible language. The design and interface is very simple, which makes this language easy to understand. To make you application secure from virus and spyware attacks, the security functions are available with the technical support available worldwide. PHP is widely acclaimed open source programming language which has changed the web development scenario. It requires less processor space, so it doesn't affect the speed of the system. There are certain aspects like scalability, flexibility, usability which comes into our mind while creating a dynamic website. PHP is user friendly covering all these aspects mentioned above and makes it the most suitable language for creating web pages. The modular structure of codes in PHP can adapt the change and custom module can be created very easily. Ready to use framework like Zend can be used to build big web portals. Other frameworks like Joomla and Drupal are commonly used to develop business websites. Your blog system can be enhanced through WordPress Plugins.

Rousseau and the Social Contract Tradition Essay

Rousseau and the Social Contract Tradition - Essay Example The major theme of Rousseau’s writings is based on this notion since he notes the way man’s own freedom has been compromised by the Civil Society’s formation. Rousseau favors the development of social contract that cannot be permeated by the stakes instead of social contract tradition. The main goal should be to promote human equality and individual liberty. Nevertheless, such a social contract can only be realized if the private interests are denounced by the members of society and if they commit to the general will’s cordons. It lies within the general will’s realms that Rousseau associates the legitimacy of political authority only with its alignment with the people’s desires. Any men who follow the general will’s principles cannot require their fellow men into activities which might betray their conscience. All men are free but they can obtain freedom only by following the laws which implement harmony and order in the society. In a ddition, Rousseau asserts that people should make conventions that develop lasting concords between social order and the liberty of people. It can be said that the propositions of Rousseau are sound philosophically. He has made realistic and reasonable suggestions. However, Rousseau has not accurately given examples of general will which leaves men with almost no option, but to advance the tradition of the social contract for progress. This is the reason why democracy still sustains even though he might not have chosen democracy for governance.

Freedom of Information in Nigeria Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Freedom of Information in Nigeria - Term Paper Example The explanation for this secretive policy may not be very clear but most of the nations that have taken this orientation of secrecy including Nigeria have cited national security as one of the greatest motivations for the secrecy policy. This paper seeks to highlight the issues and prospects as far as the freedom of information and national security in Nigeria are concerned. Freedom of information may be defined as the right of any citizen in any state to be informed in writing or in any form appropriate on request of disclosure from a governmental agency and if the agency refuses the citizen can demand the reason for refusal. In other words, any citizen has a right to demand any kind of information from the government or its agent upon which if the government or agent deems otherwise then the citizen has a right to demand an explanation as to why he or she has been denied the information requested for (Horrigan, 1998: pp90). Freedom of information legislation is sometimes known as open records is a set of rules that allows for access to government held information by the public. These sets of rules form the legal framework that puts the government under obligation to avail government information to the public as need may be. Most countries in the world have legislated FOI. Actually, more than 70 countries countrywide enjoy this freedom to information with Sweden's FoI legislation termed as the Freedom of the Press Act dates far back to 1766 and it is deemed to be the oldest worldwide. In Africa, only three countries have legislated FoI and these are Angola, S. Africa and Uganda. Nigeria is in the process of legislating FoI even though the process has been very slow and often laced with controversy. However there are hopes that with the present pressure on the government from stakeholders in FoI i.e. the public, press/media, judiciary, human rights activists, NGOs etc, the bill is likely to sail through the House of Representatives sooner than later. National security on the other hand refers to the obligation to preserve the endurance and survival of a nation or state through by the use of political, military and financial power. It is an investment that the nation makes to make sure that her citizens are safe and they lack nothing. Further, the national territory together with its institutions may uphold integrity and this integrity is what is called national security. In other words, national security is the integrity of the national territory and its institutions (Raskin, 1979). What relationship exists between freedom of information and national security The two are closely related that when you mention one the other is implied. There are restrictions to the freedom of information legislation simply because of national security. As much as people need to have freedom of security for the functioning of democracy, the degree should not reach a point that can injure national security. A nation has to have its secrets which must not reach the hands of enemies who may threaten the political, financial and even physical safety if the citizens. Therefore the two are related in that if a nation overindulges in one, the other suffers loss i.e. if a nation overemphasizes national security, freedom of information may not prevail sufficiently and if a nation gives too much freedom of inform